Section V: Trends and Issues in Various Settings

I have been a Special Education teacher for the past 13 years. Eleven of which have been working in two of the state's largest school districts at Special Education campuses for students with profound disabilities. In our reading assignment for this week, Chapter 18 states that "recent studies on achieving levels of mastery in any profession indicate that about 10 years of practice is required to become a world-class expert" (Reiser and Dempsey, p.181). Even though I have more than 10 years experience and I have been given leadership roles as a Spec. Ed. coordinator, department chair and lead teacher, I don't think I have reached the level of expertise in my field. I can carry out the adminstritave duties and the paperwork efficiently but I would be more effective had I pursued a higher degree in Special Education.

After reading about the instructional designs in the settings of business/industry, military education and training environments, and health care education, I think the one that best identifies with my current teaching setting is the military instruction design. The role of the military instructional design is similiar to Special Education in that there has to be an understanding in how to apply technology to meet the needs of the user in a wide variety of learning environments, the ability to create a blend of learning solutions, ability to work within a budget, understanding and appreciating the uniqueness in that population, and the ability to communicate with clients (parents, related services, community service providers, etc.). Also, the military and the education field both have "guiding documents" that describe their vision and goals for the future and long-range planning. Our school board projects planning for the following five years. Both the military and the education field face the same problem too. They both have issues with funding (budgets) that affect long range technological plans. There are strict steps in place for asking for new services and technology equipment and by the time the requests are approved the technology has surpassed the original plans. For example, it took several years before some of our campuses got approval for the purchase of iPads. Only one month after the schools got them Apple introduced the iPads 2. So even though the iPads were new they were already outdated. Some might argue that the Air Force is technologically advanced and they are but the Marines still use out-dated equipment. You can compare that with the richer school districts vs. the poorer ones.

Even with budget cuts in the field of education, I still prefer my profession to others. I am close to realizing my dream of being a school librarian. When I become a school librarian I want to be able to contribute to the instructional design on my campus and be a team leader to facilitate learning for both students and staff.

Section IV: Human Performance Technology

Human Performance

A current peformance problem that my district is facing is low attendence. In the past couple of years the district made extra efforts in communicating the importance of student attendence to parents through the district's web site, flyers, formal and informal meetings, incentives, etc., and it made a positive impact. Student attendance across the district has improved considerably. However this year the district is focusing on staff attendance. The new superintendant has made staff attendance his primary focus and has put pressure on the principals to improve staff attendance on their campuses. Currently teachers have 10 days they can use for absences during the school year. Five are from the state and five are from the district that can be used for personal reasons such as personal or family illness, jury duty, death in the family, military service, etc. The superintendant has communicated that the district days are a priviledge and a possible consequence for continued low staff attendance could be the loss of the district days. My campus has the second worst staff attendance rate in the district. The breakdown of the campus staff is one principal, one Spec. Ed. coordinator, 18 teachers, two RNs, four LVNs, four food service employees, four custodians, and 82 instructional assistants. The campus is considered a speciality campus and provides a range of services to a diverse student population. Students range in age from 11 to 22 years and can have any of the following disabilities: medically-fragile with extensive health care support, have severe/profound, moderate, or high functioning intellecutal disabilities, and/or behavior disorders (Autism, ADHD, Oppositional Defiant, etc.) with most students having a combination of intellectual, emotional, and physical disorders. The new principal has really worked hard to boost morale. She realizes that employees have an increase of physical, mental, and emotional stress that goes with working with our student population. She holds weekly pep-rallies and recognizes individual efforts, presents a spirit stick for staff that go beyond what is expected, passes out jeans-day passes on radom days for employees that sign in on time, and also bi-monthly drawings for gift cards for employees that have not missed a day in a two-week period. She has also created leadership teams and IA forums where staff have input and have an opportunity to collaborate on how to improve working conditions and environment. The week before the Thanksgiving holiday she announced that she wants to have staff volleyball games with a final tournament game to conclude on the week before winter break. While she knows she can not enforce participation she has allotted 15 minutes at the end of the day so that everyone can participate and still leave on time. The principal is focusing on trying to get the staff more personable and cohesive. Professional staff is outnumbered by auxillary staff so she realizes the importance of having a team approach and fun at work.  

Performance Support Systems

Performance support systems provide functional support. Performance support helps learners recall what they learned through instruction or it can be instructional. Performance support can be print-based, electronic or personal.

For a person to perform job related tasks they have to be present in the working environment. I also feel a person needs to be in attendance for performance support systems to be effective. I do not think that a person who regularly misses work would voluntarily reach out and seek supports; personal, electronic, or otherwise. The person could be knowledgeable and capable of his job assignment but other factors may contribute to why he regularly misses work. I feel work ethic, whether positive or negative, is learned through up-bringing and/or education. A person who seeks employment only to get a paycheck is extrinsically motivated. Peformance supports such as rewards, recognition, and other incentives would be effective when they are in attendance.  

 

Management Systems

Low employee attendance could be because of lack of interest, lack of enthusiasm or burn out. Administrators and teacher-leaders may want to consider the following to increase employee morale:

• Get the employees involved by asking them for suggestions or resolutions on matters concerning the department. In most instances, employees are willing to impart their ideas on the issues of attendance and morale. Being asked to help in solving problems makes people feel they are a part of the solution.
• Find out from employees where they feel additional training is needed. Ongoing coaching should be provided. Allow them the opportunity to cross-train in different areas, train with a mentor, bring in professionals so they can have their questions answered, etc.
• Performance improvement plans (which include counseling, verbal/written warnings, etc.) should be implemented for persons with excessive tardies and/or high absences.
• When people are satisfied in their jobs and they consider themselves an essential part of the company, they are more apt to achieve regular attendance and report to work on time. Developing this kind of enduring employee confidence require constant and constructive communication with the employees and continuous acknowledgment.
• Communicate with their employees in such a way that they would become aware that their contributions matter. When given significance in what they do, they are more likely to feel a sense of delight and satisfaction in their work. An effective and exceptional way of doing that is by associating the work they do regularly to customer satisfaction and the company's accomplishments.
• Successes in the school should be celebrated. Look for means to convey to the entire staff the achievements of each individual.
• Create a fun and energetic work environment.

Informal Learning

My most recent experiences in informal learning has been as a student-teacher mentor and a student-librarian mentee. Whether I was the "teacher" or the "learner" both experiences allowed for on-the-job training, mentoring, coaching, and socialization. Through working with a college student I learned what information and practices are currently being taught to college education students. I was fortunate to have two librarian mentors and with their guidance I was able to apply what I had read and learned about library procedures in real-world context. The knowledge could be codified and managed in different areas of the media center but the best learning is done through personal experience and on-the-job training. There are many situations that present themselves that are not textbook cases. I was not surprised by the following statistics in the graph shown.

Section III: Evaluating and Managing Instructional Programs and Projects

Robert Brinkerhoff's Success Case Method:

Brinkerhoff's six stage model is a comprehensive evaluation model that incorporates the results oriented aspects of the business and industry models and also the formative, improvement-orientated aspects of educational models (a systems perspective with an emphasis on return on investment). A basic assumption of the six stage model is that the primary reason for evaluation should be to improve the program (systems perspective).

Peter Rossi's Five-Domain Evaluation Method:

According to this model each evaluation should be tailored to fit local needs, resources, and type of program. The Rossi model emphasizes five primary evaluation domains.

1. The needs of the program
2. Design of the program
3. Program implementation and service delivery
4. Program impact or outcomes
5. Program efficency

This definition of effective teaching includes curriculum and course development, advising, supervision of student research and classroom performance. No single approach is sufficient for evaluating effective teaching. Aside from student performances and improvements, there are other ways for teachers to evaluate their own instruction. These include student and peer evaluations, and self-reviews as described below:

Student Review - Student ratings and evalutations, student interviews and long-term follow-up with former students using interviews or surveys.

Peer Review - Classroom visits (at least two visits by two observers) and evalutation of materials used in instruction.

Self-Review - Reflection on teaching activities, reports, self-reviews and measures on student achievement.

Most of the evaluation methods in the textbook were developed in the 1970s and 1980s. Before Web 2.0 tools and social media were used to improve instruction and learning. It would have been beneficial to learn about new evaluation designs and methods that look at the modern learning environments, both classroom and online. It would be interesting to see if there are any similiarities and differences than the ones reviewed in this section.

As the facilitator of this professional development project and as a leader, the first task is to motivate your staff to participate willingly and enthusiastically in the sessions. This will involve selling them on the ways even a little bit of technology can be used to benefit their classrooms. The sessions should focus on one computer classrooms, inexpensive or free programs, ways to use technology in centers and things that the participants can do on their own that will help make them more effective in the classroom. One session might also focus on involving the participants in decision making about how available resources can be shared equitably and effectively, while also highlighting grant opportunities and ways of involving business partners. Sessions should allow the staff to develop their knowledge and competence in the use/application of technology in ways that they can also use to lead in the classroom.

 The deficits in the public education has forced teachers do the best they can with the resources they have which in most school districts is not very much. Money and time constraints are big issues for teacher-leaders who have to provide professional development for school staff. It is important to know what resources are available such as faculty, staff, facilities, money, equipment and technology. Also to be able to plan learning activities with those resources. Another option I would try is to find other staff knowlegable or motivated in the subject/topic and get them involved to help me facilitate an effective training seminar.

Section II: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

Differences between theories, methods or models of learning and epistemologies:

Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed and retained during learning. Learning combines cognitive, emotional and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values and world views. The following learning theories were included in this section:

Behavioral Learning Theory is concerned with the learning of facts and skills that authorities, such as teachers or school boards, have decided are important. Behavioral approaches to teaching involve: breaking down the skills and information to be learned into small units, checking student's work regulary and providing feedback as well as encouragement (reinforcement), teaching "out of context" (behaviorist believe that students learn best when focus is directly on the content, and direct "teacher centered" instruction. Lectures, tutorials, drills, demonstrations, etc. dominate behavioral classrooms. 

Cognitive Information Processing Theory is concerned with observable behaviors. It uses behaviors to make inferences about underlying mental processes that cannot be directly observed. Three fundamental components of memory are proposed: the sensory register, short-term (working memory) and long-term memory. Its focus is on how prior knowledge affects new knowledge and skills.

Schema Theory is concerned with how knowledge is organized as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent one's understanding of the world. Schema approaches include: teaching general knowledge and generic concepts, help learners build schemata and make connections between ideas, as new information is acquired schemata grows and changes, learners may feel internal conflict as they try to assimilate schemata which contradict their previous suppositions, and deep-seated schemata are hard to change. 

Situated Learning Theory involves engaging in tasks which parallel real world applications. Students who work on an authentic learning task learn associated facts and skills because they need to know these things to accomplish the task. Learners should engage in context, culture and activity that learning takes place in order to acquire, understand, develop, and implement cognitive instruments in authentic learning activity.

Gagne's Theory of Instruction has three major elements. First, it is based on a taxonomy, or classification, of learning outcomes. Second, it proposes particular internal and external conditions necessary for achieving these learning outcomes. And third, it offers nine events of instruction, which serve as a template for developing and delivering a unit of instruction.

Constructivism learning theory is based on observation and scientific study about how people learn. It argues that people produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.

In ETEC 524 we reviewed Constructivism but also other theories that were not mentioned in this textbook. The other learning theories included Pragmatism, Realism, Existentialism, and Reconstructivism. I chose to incorporate Pragmatism in my educational technology philosophy because it most reflected my teaching and learning approach for students with severe and profound disabilities.

Pragmatism's methods include: (1) flexible and capable ways of learning, (2) the learning environment must be functional but flexible, (3) learning situtations in the community (in Spec. Ed. these outings are called Community-Based Instruction), (4) the teacher should capture the movitation - children are not the same and can't be educated in the same way, (5) favor action-oriented education and (6) no fixed or absolute conclusions; pragmatic education is really "discovery" education.

Its curriculum includes: (1) rejection of traditional approaches to curriculum where knowledge is separated from experience and (2) belief in a diversified curriculum - in Spec. Ed. students have Individualized Education Plans (IEPs). Pragmatism is criticized for catering too much to students' interests and does not give them basic discipline. However the theory is applicable for my students because they are not instrinsically motivated. Like most students they don't like to "work". Even if they are doing activities that they enjoy (activating a story on-tape, the computer, music, etc.), they will only continue the activity if they are provided verbal cues (praise, cheering, etc.) or physical prompts. In my defense and for all these reasons is why Pragmatism was the best choice at that time. However even though it is only the second week in this course, it is apparent that I have to revise my educational technology philosophy. As a future library media specialist my student population will change and it needs to reflect those students' learning and technological needs. 

Learning methodology tries to diminish the impact of diverse cognitive and behavioral learning styles by setting a systematic approach to learning, whether focusing on individual or group learning. The goal for the learning methodology is to provide the developers with the best learning knowledge available so that they in turn can provide the end users with the best learning tools that can be built. Learning methodology accomplishes this by ensuring the development of a affective learning environment.

Epistemology is the area of philosophy that is concerned with knowledge. The main concerns of epistemology are the definition of knowledge, the sources of knowledge (innate ideas, experience, etc.), the process of acquiring knowledge and the limits of knowledge. Epistemology considers that knowledge can be obtained through experience and/or reason.

Contextualist Epistemology is an attempt to offer a satisfying response to this puzzle in having the result that most of our everyday knowledge ascriptions are correct and by giving an explanation as to why the puzzle arises. This solution claims that the word ‘know’ is context sensitive – that ‘know’ means different things in different contexts or that it has a different semantic value in different contexts (its contribution to the proposition expressed varies according to context). In this way ‘know’ is like the comparative adjectives ‘tall’, ‘rich’, and ‘flat’. The standard that these terms invoke is dependent upon the context of the attribution – it is up to the person's standards in that matter. In an everyday context when someone utters the sentence ‘a 6’ person is tall’ he expresses a truth, whereas when someone in a basketball context utters that same sentence he expresses a falsehood. The standard picked out by ‘tall’ differs in these contexts.

Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding.

Radical constructivism does not deny an objective reality, but simply states that we have no way of knowing what that reality might be. Mental constructs, constructed from past experience, help to impose order on one's flow of continuing experience.

Differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives.

Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning while constructivisim views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.

The role of teachers is very important within the constructivism learning theory. Instead of giving a lecture the teachers in this theory function as facilitators whose role is to aid the student when it comes to their own understanding. Teachers are continually in conversation with the students, creating the learning experience that is open to new directions depending upon the needs of the student as the learning progresses.

I believe that the constructivist learning approach would yield higher learner motivation. Students are not only challenged to be effective critical thinkers but the teacher also becomes a mentor, consultant and a coach, in their learning.

As I revisited Constructivism and have compared it to the other theories mentioned in this section I favor it because it incorporates higher-order and social learning, emphasis in real-world application and the role teachers play in learning.

Section I: Defining the Field

Chapter 1: What Field Did You Say You Were In? Defining and Naming Our Field

The first chapter explained how the definition of educational technology has evolved over the past decades. My simple definition of educational technology is the use of technological resources to facilitate learning and improve student performances. These resources include physical and world-wide web resources. According to the textbook, the most recent definition includes that the goal of the field is "to improve (or facilitate) learning and performance". I think that definition statement compares to mine almost identically. However after reading the chapter and reflecting on my experiences with educational technology I feel that my definition should include instructional design and management. It already seems that my definition of educational technology will be redefined after taking ETEC 561.

Chapter 2: Characteristics of Instructional Design Models

I teach students with severe and profound disabilities. My lesson plans do not include higher order thinking skills and the only technology I incorporate in my lessons is assistive technology. However in ETEC 562 I developed a Cyberbullying lesson using the ASSURE Model instructional design. The six steps of the ASSURE model are: (1) Analyze learners, (2) State objectives, (3) Select methods, materials, and media, (4) Utilize media, materials, and methods, (5) Require learner participation, and (6) Evaluate and revise. It is important for the teacher to know the make-up of the class (demographics, learning disabilities, technology skills, etc.) to design and successfully implement instruction. The last step of the ASSURE model allows for evaluation of student performance, media effectiveness, and instructor performance. I think the ASSURE model is similar and adheres closely to the six characteristics of instructional design.  

Chapter 3: A History of Instructional Design and Technology

Reiser excludes teachers, chalkboards, and textbooks from the definition of instructional media because his focus is only on the physical means which instruction is presented to learners. I can see his reason because those three things do not necessarily come to mind when I when I think of instructional media. It does not mean I agree with Reiser but I can see how teachers can both be included and excluded as instructional media. Technology and its application have been able to expand a teacher's instuctional versatility. A teacher can assume a range of roles from instructor to monitor, tutor, mentor, etc. Technology integration allows a change in instructional practices from teacher-centered to student-centered. As teaching moves towards student-centered learning teachers can become facilitators and part of the collaboration process and instruction can move from memorization to problem solving, evaluation, and synthesis. In the new century emerging media technologies will continue to deliver quality education and high intractability to the classroom but a teacher should not only be the ‘vehicle’ of instructional media but also the ‘influence’ in order for its applications in education to reach its full potential.