Section II: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

Differences between theories, methods or models of learning and epistemologies:

Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed and retained during learning. Learning combines cognitive, emotional and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values and world views. The following learning theories were included in this section:

Behavioral Learning Theory is concerned with the learning of facts and skills that authorities, such as teachers or school boards, have decided are important. Behavioral approaches to teaching involve: breaking down the skills and information to be learned into small units, checking student's work regulary and providing feedback as well as encouragement (reinforcement), teaching "out of context" (behaviorist believe that students learn best when focus is directly on the content, and direct "teacher centered" instruction. Lectures, tutorials, drills, demonstrations, etc. dominate behavioral classrooms. 

Cognitive Information Processing Theory is concerned with observable behaviors. It uses behaviors to make inferences about underlying mental processes that cannot be directly observed. Three fundamental components of memory are proposed: the sensory register, short-term (working memory) and long-term memory. Its focus is on how prior knowledge affects new knowledge and skills.

Schema Theory is concerned with how knowledge is organized as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent one's understanding of the world. Schema approaches include: teaching general knowledge and generic concepts, help learners build schemata and make connections between ideas, as new information is acquired schemata grows and changes, learners may feel internal conflict as they try to assimilate schemata which contradict their previous suppositions, and deep-seated schemata are hard to change. 

Situated Learning Theory involves engaging in tasks which parallel real world applications. Students who work on an authentic learning task learn associated facts and skills because they need to know these things to accomplish the task. Learners should engage in context, culture and activity that learning takes place in order to acquire, understand, develop, and implement cognitive instruments in authentic learning activity.

Gagne's Theory of Instruction has three major elements. First, it is based on a taxonomy, or classification, of learning outcomes. Second, it proposes particular internal and external conditions necessary for achieving these learning outcomes. And third, it offers nine events of instruction, which serve as a template for developing and delivering a unit of instruction.

Constructivism learning theory is based on observation and scientific study about how people learn. It argues that people produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.

In ETEC 524 we reviewed Constructivism but also other theories that were not mentioned in this textbook. The other learning theories included Pragmatism, Realism, Existentialism, and Reconstructivism. I chose to incorporate Pragmatism in my educational technology philosophy because it most reflected my teaching and learning approach for students with severe and profound disabilities.

Pragmatism's methods include: (1) flexible and capable ways of learning, (2) the learning environment must be functional but flexible, (3) learning situtations in the community (in Spec. Ed. these outings are called Community-Based Instruction), (4) the teacher should capture the movitation - children are not the same and can't be educated in the same way, (5) favor action-oriented education and (6) no fixed or absolute conclusions; pragmatic education is really "discovery" education.

Its curriculum includes: (1) rejection of traditional approaches to curriculum where knowledge is separated from experience and (2) belief in a diversified curriculum - in Spec. Ed. students have Individualized Education Plans (IEPs). Pragmatism is criticized for catering too much to students' interests and does not give them basic discipline. However the theory is applicable for my students because they are not instrinsically motivated. Like most students they don't like to "work". Even if they are doing activities that they enjoy (activating a story on-tape, the computer, music, etc.), they will only continue the activity if they are provided verbal cues (praise, cheering, etc.) or physical prompts. In my defense and for all these reasons is why Pragmatism was the best choice at that time. However even though it is only the second week in this course, it is apparent that I have to revise my educational technology philosophy. As a future library media specialist my student population will change and it needs to reflect those students' learning and technological needs. 

Learning methodology tries to diminish the impact of diverse cognitive and behavioral learning styles by setting a systematic approach to learning, whether focusing on individual or group learning. The goal for the learning methodology is to provide the developers with the best learning knowledge available so that they in turn can provide the end users with the best learning tools that can be built. Learning methodology accomplishes this by ensuring the development of a affective learning environment.

Epistemology is the area of philosophy that is concerned with knowledge. The main concerns of epistemology are the definition of knowledge, the sources of knowledge (innate ideas, experience, etc.), the process of acquiring knowledge and the limits of knowledge. Epistemology considers that knowledge can be obtained through experience and/or reason.

Contextualist Epistemology is an attempt to offer a satisfying response to this puzzle in having the result that most of our everyday knowledge ascriptions are correct and by giving an explanation as to why the puzzle arises. This solution claims that the word ‘know’ is context sensitive – that ‘know’ means different things in different contexts or that it has a different semantic value in different contexts (its contribution to the proposition expressed varies according to context). In this way ‘know’ is like the comparative adjectives ‘tall’, ‘rich’, and ‘flat’. The standard that these terms invoke is dependent upon the context of the attribution – it is up to the person's standards in that matter. In an everyday context when someone utters the sentence ‘a 6’ person is tall’ he expresses a truth, whereas when someone in a basketball context utters that same sentence he expresses a falsehood. The standard picked out by ‘tall’ differs in these contexts.

Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding.

Radical constructivism does not deny an objective reality, but simply states that we have no way of knowing what that reality might be. Mental constructs, constructed from past experience, help to impose order on one's flow of continuing experience.

Differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives.

Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning while constructivisim views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.

The role of teachers is very important within the constructivism learning theory. Instead of giving a lecture the teachers in this theory function as facilitators whose role is to aid the student when it comes to their own understanding. Teachers are continually in conversation with the students, creating the learning experience that is open to new directions depending upon the needs of the student as the learning progresses.

I believe that the constructivist learning approach would yield higher learner motivation. Students are not only challenged to be effective critical thinkers but the teacher also becomes a mentor, consultant and a coach, in their learning.

As I revisited Constructivism and have compared it to the other theories mentioned in this section I favor it because it incorporates higher-order and social learning, emphasis in real-world application and the role teachers play in learning.